Ferdinand de Saussure
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Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913)
His ideas about language:
Linguistic signs
Linearity – the sounds are in some order, we can’t say them at once, they go one another one
Arbitrariness – the particular form is chosen arbitrarily to represent the given meaning
Exceptions:
Onomatopoeic words
Sound symbolism (sounds give you some impression)
Reduplication (malilinkatý, piga – pigapiga)
A language does not simply assign names to independently existing concepts
A concept is defined by its relations to and differences from other concepts in the system
tree is delimited by shrub and cactus
Crosslinguistic differences (šaty=oblečení, ale v angličtině dresses-clothes)
conventionality
discreteness
Structuralism
a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes that elements of culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure.
‘Their most precise characteristic is that they are what the others are not.’
Both signifiers (forms) and signigieds (concepts) can change over time
Form: Good bye < God be with you (500 yrs)
Nice < not knowing, ignorant, stupid, silly (400 yrs)
… lat. nescius (nescīre = not to know) – sciō mē nescīre (Socrates)silly < worthy, good, holy, pious, nice (decent) (450 yrs)
The change of the form or the meaning of a language sign should not be confused with changes of the relationships between language signs
Pre-Saussure linguistics – problems with defining what they were actually studying
Saussure distinguished:
Langue - the linguistic signs, the system of relations between them, rules for combining them
Parole - the act of selecting particular elements, combining them and giving them a concrete form (pronouncing them/writing them)
Chomsky gave new term, that we use today – performance/competence
The main reason for distinguishing langue and parole is to define the object of linguists’ investigation
Linguists should not just describe specific speech acts (parole) but try to determine the units and rules of their combination which make up the language system (langue)
Units are defined in relative terms, not absolute
Paradigmatic relations
Relations between a unit and other units that could appear in the same position (things that can replace each other)
Inflectional affixes within a morphological paradigm
Phonemes in overlapping distribution
A pronoun (proform) and what it refers to
Synonyms, antonyms
Syntagmatic relations
Relations between units that combine with each other
A verb and its object
An allophone and its context, an allomorph and its context
Members of a collocation