6. Speech Acts
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Paul Grice (1913-1988)
a British philosopher of language teaching at Oxford and Berkeley
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an author of “intention-based semantics” or so-called “Gricean Semantics”
Works:
“Meaning” (1957)
“Logic and Conversation” (1975)
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Studies in the Way of Words (1989)
Cooperative principle
people who engage in communication have to cooperate; speakers are bound to be understood, listeners are bound to understand
“Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.” (“Logic and Conversation”, p. 45)
maxims:
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quantity
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quality
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relation
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manner
Implicature
types of speech:
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saying – to express something directly
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implying – to suggest something indirectly
types of meaning:
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explicit – fully expressed
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implicit – partially suggested
types of implicatures:
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conventional – based on general knowledge of the larger community
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conversational – based on the circumstances of the specific conversation
Expressing stereotypes
“Why should you study mathematics, you are a girl!”
“His name is Shaquille, but he has not been to prison yet.”
“They came to Europe in a boat, they must be terrorists.”
Sophisticated lying
“I did not have sexual relations with that woman, Miss Lewinsky.”
implies: Oral sex is not a sexual relation.
“I have never used marijuana.”
implies: Using is inhaling, not smoking
Grice, “Logic and Conversation”, 1975
Questions:
1. What are the maxims of communication?
2. What are implicatures?
I have to assume to a considerable extent an intuitive understanding of the meaning of say in such contexts, and an ability to recognize particular verbs as members of the family with which implicate is associated
3. Explain the difference between conventional and conversational implicatures. Devise new examples.
Conversational implicature are essentially connected to the conversation
4. Try to find a way how implicatures can be used in expressing stereotypes.