Shrnutí - morfologie

• emphatic use: appear in apposition and have heavy (nuclear) stress. Function only as modifiers, they are not constituents of the sentence structure. Unlike basic reflexive pronouns, they may have positional mobility.

  • Jane herself completed the audit. (She managed it on her own)

  • Jane completed the audit herself

  • Jane completed the audit by herself

5) Reciprocal pronouns

• each other, one another

• are related to reflexive pronouns in that they can be said to express a “two-way reflexive relationship. Yet there are important differences. Compare:

Adam and Eve blamed only themselves for the break-up of their marriage.

Adam and Eve blamed each other for the break-up of their marriage.

6) Indefinite pronouns

They constitute a loose category of words brought together traditionally by the semantic fact that they do not refer to “something” specific. They have little (if anything) in common – a “leftover class”. The general semantic notion that unifies the majority of them is that of quantity → sometimes assigned to a separate class of quantifiers.

7) Interrogative and relative pronouns

"self study"

Verbs can be classified according to their ability to function as the predicate of a sentence:

Full verbs can function alone as predicate

Auxiliary verbs function as predicate together with the past participle or the infinitive of a full verb (auxiliaries are used to form the complex tenses)

Modal verbs function as predicate together with the infinitive of a full verb

Copula verbs function as predicate in combination with a noun or an adjective

Empty verbs

Predicate

The central role of the verb in a sentence is called the predicate. A complete sentence always contains (at least) one predicate. The predicate has always one finite verb form (= verb form having a specific number and person). It can consist of one or more verb forms.

primary

The three primary verbs: be, have, and do, make up one of the two categories of auxiliary verbs; the other category is the modal auxiliaries. Unlike the modals all the primary auxiliaries can also be used as main verbs. The primary verbs are also unlike the primary auxiliaries in that they appear in both present and past tenses, and in the passive voice.

modal verbs

• a closed class of usually 8 verbs: can, may, must, shall, will, should, ought to, need

• modal verbs always function as auxiliary verbs

• they are also distinguished from the rest of the verbs by a number of formal features

In addition to the general criteria for auxiliaries central modals are marked out by the following characteristics:

1. bare infinitive

2. no non-finite forms

3. no-s form

4. abnormal time reference

5. no co-occurrence * He may will come.

   • the missing forms (e.g. for past and future tense of some modal verbs) are expressed suppletively: can – be able, may – be allowed, must – have to (apart from have to all suppletive forms are restricted to deontic modality)

Although it seems that some modals have present and past forms (can-could, shall-should), these “past forms” apart from could are not used to express past reference – they have other functions