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  1. Activation of syntactic information related to a lexical item (gender, countability, complements)

  2. Mechanisms to assemble phrases and clauses

  1. Articulator – pronouncing the words

  • Activation of the phonological form of the word

  • The phonological form of non-selected lemmas can also be activated

  • Problems: TOT, slips of the tongue

  • Articulatory gestures for syllables are retrieved:

  • The basic unit of articulatory execution is syllable

  • Syllabary: storage of syllable programmes

Summary of Levelt’s model

  • Processing is incremental – bit by bit, pronouncing starts by segments, not by pronouncing the whole prepared sentence

  • Processing is not serial, but parallel – we are working on multiple tasks – not only on one bit, we pronounce one bit and preparing the next one – WE CAN SPEAK FLUENTLY AND FAST

  • Processing is modular – conceptuliazer works without input of lexical, once information has let one stage, it cannot return to that stage – you can only restart, not redo it

5. The Developing system

Linguistic environment: input/experience/exposure

  • Often used as synonyms

  • Not only input, but also output is important (Swain & Lapkin)

  • Zone of Proximal development =

  • Assimilation and accommodation

  • Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Vigotzki

  • Tomasello – the language experience is the main feature of language learning

  • Input =raw linguistic data/ the language available to learners/ produced by competent users of L2

  • Narrowly, input is = all vocal utterances the learner has heard and comprehend (including his own) regardless of whether the utterances are produced correctly or not (Krashen’s comprehensive input hypothesis = input must be in a right amount and must be understood – necessary grammar is automatically provided => nativism)

  • Interactional input (Long 1983) – it is not a matter of just receiving messages, you have to be actively engaged in the conversation to learn

Usage-based theories of language acquisition (language is learnt when using the L, deny UG)

Emergentism = grammar is not given to you by UG, the grammar emerges from language usage

  • They both claim that all language knowledge is constructed on the basis of the input

  • No innate learning mechanisms

  • General learning mechanisms that allow to abstract regularities from the input

  • Input is rich – sufficient statistical information available in the input

  • Competition model = learning form-meaning links from the input depend on properties such as salience, frequency, transparency

Competition model and L2 development

MacWhinney: Unified competition model

  • adults and children have one model – no critical period for SLA, although there are important age effects

  • Critical period effects are due to neural network entrenchment and to competition

  • The most important aspect is not the timing of learning, but the quality of exposure

  • Languages can be learnt and taught, there ISN’T real learning/acquisition dichotomy

Sociocultural theory (Lantolf)

the source of development resides in the environment rather than in the individual

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