Shrnutí - morfologie

Determiners

When used in discourse, noun phrases refer to the linguistic or situational context. The kind of reference a particular noun phrase has depends on its determinative element, i.e. the item which determines it. This function is typically realized by a set of closed-class items called determiners. They appear before the noun acting as the head of the noun phrase (or before its pre-modifiers) in order to specify its number and definiteness (určitost).

Reference

1. Generic reference

- Generic reference refers to any member representative of a class of people or things.

a) the + n (in singular form)

The horse has been replaced by the railroad, the windship and the steamship.

b) the + adj.

The rich get richer, and the poor get poorer.

c) a/an + n. (in singular form)

An ox is a useful animal.

d) zero + pl. N. / zero + noncount

Carrots are my favorite vegetables.

Unity is strength.

2. Specific reference

- It refers to a particular specimen of the class.

a) definite specific reference

It implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer. (The is most frequently used in this sense.)

e.g. Old Tom owns a dog and a cat. The dog’s name is Boris; the cat’s name is Blackie.

b) indefinite specific reference

In the case of indefinite specific reference, the person or the thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified. (a/an & zero)

e.g. Here’s a letter for you. I met an old man in the street.

The word anaphoric means “pointing backwards.” When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as “anaphoric reference”.

e.g. I bought a novel another day. The novel is entitled “Through the Looking-glass.”

- anaforická reference je to, že nějaké slovo (např. člen, osobní zájmeno) odkazuje na něco, co v textu již bylo uvedeno

osobní zájmena:

SUSAN started to cry when SHE heard... (tady se osobní zájmeno vztahuje na SUSAN, která už před tím byla zmíněna)

členy:

A car stopped a few feet away. She got into THE car. (tady se THE vztahuje na to auto, které je zmíněno ve větě předtím)

4) Cataphoric reference

The word cataphoric means “pointing forward.” When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the article and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that’s cataphoric reference.

e.g. Is this the train for Shanghai? This is the place where I first met her.

- kataforická reference je to, že nějaké slovo (např. člen, ososbní zájmeno) odkazuje na něco, co bude v textu až později

osobní zájmena:

When SHE heard what happened, SUSAN started to cry. (tady je osobní zájmeno SHE s tzv. cataphoric reference - zprvu nevíme, o koho se jedná, dovíme se to až později).

členy:

She opened THE letter that she had found in the mail that morning. (určitý člen THE je tu i přesto, že se jedná o novou informaci, dopis se zde zmiňuje zcela poprvé, posluchač ještě o žádném neslyšel ... ale je určitý, protože je zde za chvilku specifikovaný. Opět kataforická reference.